Genie’s story is undeniably one of the most heart-wrenching tales imaginable. What she has endured is something that nobody would wish upon even their worst enemies. It all began on November 4th, 1970, when Genie and her blind mother entered the general social services office early in the morning. While her mother sought assistance for herself rather than for Genie, it was fate or perhaps luck that led them to this specific office instead of the services for the blind. Just three weeks prior, her mother had escaped an abusive marriage.
The eligibility worker noticed Genie’s unusual walking and standing, which led them to suspect a possible undisclosed case of autism. After informing their supervisor, it was determined that Genie did not have autism but still showed clear signs of something being wrong. To investigate further, a social worker visited Genie’s home and organized her transfer to the Childrens Hospital of Los Angeles.
Genie, the daughter of Clark and Irene, suffered from her father’s abuse. Both of her parents had previously lost two infants early on. The first baby died after being locked in a garage because of crying, while the second baby passed away shortly after birth due to Rh-blood poisoning. Genie also had an older brother who experienced severe neglect.
However, his grandmother put him back on track. Unfortunately, Genie didn’t have anyone to do the same for her. Like her brother, she had developmental problems and was not growing properly in terms of physical stature and habits. After Clark’s mother passed away in a car accident and the family relocated, Genie was confined to a tiny bedroom and secured to an infant’s potty seat. She spent her days tied-up there and was placed in a restraining sleeping bag at night.
The primary reason why her father continuously kept her tied up was because he believed she was mentally disabled since birth. He thought that restraining her was a suitable measure to prevent her from getting taken advantage of. She would be physically abused if she made any noise, so she learned to remain silent and suppress any vocal output. Genie’s father firmly believed that she would not survive, and he even made a promise to Irene that if Genie lived past the age of twelve, she could seek assistance for her. Despite Genie’s survival, her father broke his commitment.
At the age of 13, Genie’s mother had a fierce dispute with Clark and gave him an ultimatum to contact her parents or she would leave. He complied and later that day, the mother and child relocated to the general social services office. As a result, her parents were accused of abuse.
Genie’s father tragically took his own life on the day they were scheduled to go to court for allegedly causing intentional harm or injury to a minor’s well-being. Despite appearing young, Genie was actually an adolescent weighing only 4 stone and measuring four and a half feet tall. Genie suffered from incontinence and had difficulty chewing food. Her eyes had a limited focus range of twelve feet and she could not produce tears. She also lacked the ability to fully extend her limbs for activities like jumping, skipping, or climbing. Additionally, Genie had no perception of changes in temperature.
Furthermore, what is most intriguing to scientists is that she was unable to speak. This paper focuses on that aspect. However, prior to discussing Genie’s language learning abilities, I will provide some background on the history of linguistics and language acquisition.
During the high renaissance era, European philosophers began connecting language to the Bible, believing any attribute of humans to be as mysterious and divine as their creator. However, Descartes introduced a groundbreaking perspective by dividing humans into two distinct entities – the mind and the body.
This provided significant flexibility for the early study of biology as it was believed that the brain was not connected and the scalpel could be used on it. Epicurus, a Greek philosopher who lived around 300 BC, also discussed the origins of language. He was among the first philosophers to reject the notion that God or human intellect created language. According to him, language was a natural biological function similar to vision or digestion.
During the late 17th century, Leibniz believed that language ability was a divine gift influenced by instinct. This viewpoint placed linguistics in a delicate position between theology and naturalism. However, as the social sciences emerged in the late 18th century, this concern was somewhat eased. The question of language origins became a topic for anthropologists, while linguists focused on the connection between theology and biology.
In 1957, Genie was born. During this year, Noam Chomsky, who would later be highly respected as the godfather of linguistics, wrote a revolutionary book called Syntactic Structures. This publication completely transformed the field by addressing problems that were previously dealt with by psychologists. As a result, linguists started to view syntax as the discipline’s primary challenge instead of vocabulary.
Chomsky recognized the complexity of language and the challenges faced by children in learning it. He was less concerned with the specific grammar rules taught in elementary school and more interested in the underlying structure of these rules. He argued that despite surface differences, languages share a common syntactical level. These inner language rules, referred to as Universal Grammar, are either a remarkable achievement or ingrained at a fundamental level beyond conscious thought. Chomsky believed in the latter hypothesis, stating that we are born with these inner grammar rules rather than learning them.
Linguists were interested in the case because it was a unique situation – a 13-year-old girl who had reached puberty but couldn’t speak. This presented an ideal chance to test the Lenneberg theory, which states that if a child doesn’t learn language by the age of twelve, they won’t be able to learn it later on. Susan Curtiss, a linguistics graduate student who believed in Chomsky’s theory, was invited by Victoria Fromkin to participate in the Genie case. She didn’t realize how lucky she would be when accepting this invitation.
Despite strong competition and uncertainty, linguistic experts were eventually included in the team of scientific observers studying Genie, a case that generated significant interest. David Rigler, a professor at the University of California specializing in paediatrics and psychology, played a crucial role in devising the research design and securing initial funding from two foundations for Genie’s study. Coordinating with the psychiatric division of the Children’s Hospital, Howard Hansen, David Rigler, and James Kent served as gatekeepers during the funding process.
James Kent, a hospital psychologist and child abuse expert, was initially appointed as Genie’s therapist and followed her case. However, he became more of a Boswell to her rather than a therapist. Genie was the most profoundly damaged child he had ever encountered. Susan Curtiss and James Kent both questioned the impact of the damage on Genie’s emotional and intellectual well-being. Testing Genie proved challenging due to her inability to speak. Her vocabulary consisted of only a few words, such as colors, Mother, walk, and go. Her ability to express herself was even more limited, with her only being able to utter short negatives like Stopit and Nomore.
However, she did express emotion. She demonstrated fear and joy. In a 1972 symposium paper, Kent noted that she began exhibiting more emotion, occasionally repeating words and displaying clear indications of emotion. Another outside observer named Jay Shurley also showed great interest in Genie’s case, particularly in her language acquisition.
The speaker mentioned that if Genie were indeed mentally retarded (either genetically or due to her diet), she would not be an appropriate subject for studying cognitive development. However, Genie’s overall health, both physical and emotional, began to improve. Her laughter, which used to sound nervous, now became relaxed and infectious. Rather than directing her rage inwardly, she started directing it outwardly towards other people. She also started forming friendships, particularly with men who had beards, such as Shurley. Jean Butler, a dedicated school teacher at the rehabilitation center, also got along well with Genie. Additionally, she started to develop speech skills gradually. She would guide one of her caretakers to something and ask about it.
According to Curtiss, frustration could arise if a caretaker failed to provide a word for a particular item or color. Despite expanding her vocabulary, her speech remained limited to brief utterances. It became evident that she had greater comprehension than verbal expression. During a session in Jean Butler’s class at the rehabilitation center, a boy with two balloons was asked about the quantity of his balloons.
Genie was surprised when the child revealed that he had three balloons, and she gave him an extra one to match his answer accurately. Intelligence tests were conducted on Genie, and she showed impressive performance. She made remarkable advancements in certain areas, achieving a year’s worth of progress within a short period. In some skills, her performance matched that of an average nine-year-old, but in tasks like chewing food, she performed at the level of a toddler.
In May, her progress accelerated suddenly. She became more assertive in her quest for vocabulary, and her frequent but incoherent verbalizations increased. A curious aspect of Genie’s story is that her discovery almost coincided with the Los Angeles premiere of “The Wild Child, l’enfant sauvage d’Avignon.” This film tells the tale of Victor, a boy who was found in France’s Languedoc region in January 1800. Victor had no language and had very little contact with humans. Although he managed to learn how to spell one French word, he was extensively tested by his teacher, J.M.G. Itard, but never acquired the ability to speak.
There were various notable similarities between him and Genie. Both appeared unaffected by extreme temperatures. Additionally, they both exhibited what a scientist referred to as a disconnection between their visual perception and sense of touch (essentially, they relied on both their hands and eyes to interpret what they saw). Unfortunately, this aspect was rather disheartening as Victor’s narrative did not conclude with a positive outcome.
Itard eventually lost interest in the boy and stopped seeing him, despite having taught and lived with him for a long time. The investigators’ preconceived biases were evident in the way they interpreted the movie about Genie and her testing and experimentation. They concluded that, as Shurley pointed out, asking the right questions, those that are relevant, allows one to bypass the issue of age restriction in language learning and uncover what was already present.
Genie’s limited language acquisition prevented scientists from administering standardized tests to assess her linguistic abilities. Hence, Curtiss and her teacher, Ms. Fromkin, had to create a unique set of linguistics exams specifically tailored to Genie’s situation. A total of twenty-six exams were invented and conducted alongside neurological and psychological evaluations. However, the analysis of Genie’s speech proved challenging due to her unusually high fundamental pitch, which could not be effectively measured by the available acoustic instruments.
Furthermore, there was significant sound distortion present, although Genie did not exhibit any indications of muscle or nerve impairment and her speech remained monotonous. Curtiss subsequently acknowledged that formal research would be impractical due to these factors, and thus opted to spend the summer observing Genie instead. Throughout this period, Curtiss essentially assumed the role of Genie’s surrogate mother. They frequently engaged in outings, such as visits to the zoo or shopping sprees, often accompanied by James Kent or Rigler. On these excursions, Genie took great pleasure in repetitively uttering one of her newly acquired words.
Despite her unconventional methods of communication, which included grabbing people’s arms and getting close to their faces, she began to make progress in more traditional forms of communication. While she still spoke in short words, her vocabulary expanded. Additionally, she started to comprehend the dynamics of conversations. In essence, she reached a similar level as Victor, being able to form social connections and express her needs through basic language skills.
On July 7th, Genie was taken in by her teacher, Ms. Butler, due to her having contracted rubella. Normally, she would have had to be isolated, but considering her circumstances, there was no humane way to do so. Therefore, she was placed in quarantine with Jean Butler. Pictures taken during that summer at Butler’s residence depicted a lively, happy, and satisfied Genie.
During the summer, Butler observed a significant improvement in Genie’s speech quality and quantity. Her speech had become ten times more frequent and she was now able to appropriately say “yes” instead of having tantrums when angry. One notable incident recorded by Butler was when Genie talked continuously for 45 minutes while walking to the pet shop to buy four fish. Additionally, Genie started using two adjectives to describe objects, such as referring to a fish as a “bad orange fish” and emphasizing her longest expressed thought.
Meanwhile, tensions between Butler and the researchers escalated while Genie was transferred to her new foster parents, David and Marilyn Rigler, on August 13th. Butler was furious about this and launched a relentless quest to seek retribution for what she believed was an injustice. The Riglers had informed Social Services that they were willing to temporarily care for Genie if no other foster parents were available. Their agreement was for a three-month period, but Genie ended up staying with them for four years.
Susan Curtiss diligently visited the Riglers and recorded Genie’s speech as often as possible. In early September, she began administering the linguistic tests she and Fromkin had created. During this time, Curtiss also discovered Genie’s restlessness and stubbornness. Genie would never initiate any activities and would only respond in the most minimal manner.
Curtiss determined that she was lazy, which made test taking and determining if she was truly unable to speak in complete sentences or simply did not want to, difficult. Eventually, as she began speaking in multi-word sentences, she began compressing the words into one word, using syllables from each original word. For example, “Monday Curtiss come” would become something like “Munkuh.” She would only pronounce the unabridged version when directly asked to do so. The extent of her ability to answer questions was also highly uncertain.
The reason for her not doing so could have been either due to laziness or incapability. Curtiss started reading stories to Genie, but initially, she did not react. However, on October 13th, she started responding to the stories by actively listening instead of just hearing. Genie’s facial expressions began to mirror the content of the stories. Additionally, she learned the skill of eavesdropping as she could now listen attentively. At times, she would interrupt conversations between adults, and other times she would provide appropriate comments.
In November, Curtiss began teaching Genie nursery songs, to his surprise she loved them. She would dance, clap along, and even sing along with some semblance of tonal control. After some time, Genie was transferred to the Riglers where she enrolled in a nursery school and later a school for the mentally retarded. At home, she received speech therapy and learned sign language but remained mostly quiet. The only time she expressed herself was during tantrums when she became self-destructive. Marilyn Rigler taught her how to have a fit, and during these fits Genie preferred using gestures rather than words. Eventually, Genie learned to stomp her feet and slam doors.
By November 1971, a year after being admitted to the Children’s Hospital, Genie’s language skills had developed to a level comparable to that of a typical 18 to 20-month-old child. In the weeks leading up to the November convention, Genie demonstrated an understanding of singular and plural forms, as well as the distinction between negative and positive sentences.
Also, she demonstrated understanding of certain propositions such as “in,” as evidenced by her ability to correctly answer questions about where elephants could be found by saying “in zoo.” In addition, she was capable of comprehending yes or no inquiries and grasped the concept of possessiveness. Furthermore, she had progressed from using one-word sentences to formulating two-word sentences and occasionally even spoke in three-word sentences.
However, according to Fromkin, constructing a two-word sentence is more complex than it appears. The child cannot simply select any two words; they must choose the two crucial words. Fromkin even began to suspect that Genie was starting to grasp certain rules of English grammar. Nevertheless, she deleted her notes on whether Genie had developed grammar skills or not, prior to attending the conference.
Initially, Fromkin had a suspicion that Genie could potentially acquire grammar and syntax knowledge, which would counter Lenneberg’s theory. On the other hand, Lenneberg was aware of Genie’s case but lacked interest in it. He believed that the case was not suitable for solid scientific study as it was clouded with complexities. Ultimately, if Genie could not learn a language, her lack of success could be attributed to either her emotional issues or the fact that she was already 13 years old and had surpassed the critical period.
On the other hand, the rebuttal would be even stronger if Genie actually gained language. It appeared that she was in the process of learning language during that time. Reflecting on it, the 1972 conference appears to be the peak of optimism. However, in hindsight, the prospects of Genie’s ultimate triumph were already starting to fade during the summer of 1972.
According to theories on language acquisition, a significant milestone in a child’s development is when they enter the two-word stage. At this point, experts anticipate a rapid increase in linguistic ability, often referred to as an “explosion.” However, despite the passing months, this anticipated burst of progress did not occur. Instead, the child’s rate of advancement continued to be consistent but gradual.
Curtiss later expressed that she did not realize the extent of Genie’s limitations at that time. If we examine the typical progression children make in constructing a negative statement, it begins with “No have toy,” followed by “I not have toy,” and then the child eventually forms the sentence “I don’t have a toy.” However, Genie remained stuck in this initial three-word stage for several years.
In addition, Genie lacked the ability to ask normal questions, as she had no facility for Wh-movement in her brain. This inability made it impossible for her to form Wh-questions. However, she could comprehend questions, but when prompted to form her own, she would ask questions like “Where is the graham cracker on the top shelf?”. Another issue she had was differentiating between pronouns “me” and “you”. As stated in Rymer’s book, she never understood her own identity or someone else’s. Despite these challenges, she excelled in communication through gestures, pictures, mime, and homonyms. Although she could respond when called, she could not initiate calls herself.
Many scientists encountered Genie’s failure in language learning shortly after she was found. Some scientists attributed her failure to retardation, but Curtiss disagrees. According to Curtiss, Genie achieved a flawless adult score on tests evaluating her spatial abilities.
Additionally, her cognitive development increased at a rate of one year for each year she spent outside of isolation, which is not typical for intellectually disabled children. She showed progress by displaying two new skills in March 1974: the ability to engage in verbal fantasy and manipulation, and the capability to tell a deliberate falsehood. Furthermore, she began using language to recount a past incident, informing the Rigler family in the late summer of 1974 that her father had struck her with a stick. This demonstrated her ability to comprehend and communicate about events that occurred prior to acquiring language skills.
Later that year, Genie began visiting her mother, who had regained her eyesight. This led to tension between Irene and Marilyn Rigler, as well as Jean Butler and the group of scientists. Butler actively campaigned against Rigler, Hansen, and Curtiss with the scientific community. She argued that Genie was not as healthy and happy as previously believed and that she was most lively when she was with her. Subsequently, when the research grant was discontinued, she was moved from one foster family to another.
Some families were abusive. One foster mother attempted to remove fecal material using an ice-cream stick. She felt that this invasion of her body’s sovereignty justified her depriving the world of her voice by not speaking for five months. Curtiss continued to visit regularly and Genie expressed her desire to return to the Riglers’ house.
In 1977, Curtiss and Fromkin obtained funding from the National Science Foundation to carry on their linguistic study. They became the sole recipients of funds to work with Genie. Curtiss organized her research, notes, and videos from Genie’s time at the Riglers and distinguished what Genie had learned and what she hadn’t. The investigation revealed that Genie had been acquiring a vocabulary, which she could use to articulate intricate concepts.
Despite her attempts, she never fully grasped grammar. She lacked the ability to utilize word endings and struggled with syntax, according to Curtiss. Additionally, Genie’s linguistic skills developed gradually rather than all at once, allowing grammar to be observed separately from other non-grammatical elements like vocabulary.
The text highlights the unique development of language in a child named Genie. In contrast to typical children, Genie’s language development occurred separately from other cognitive abilities. This demonstrated that language and other cognitive tasks can progress independently. Genie’s limitations supported Lenneberg’s theory, suggesting that exposure to language alone does not guarantee language acquisition after puberty. Notably, Genie’s acquired skills, such as vocabulary, were distinct from innate skills like syntax. Her semantic abilities were negatively impacted by her developmental journey. These findings once again sparked inquiries.
The scientists discovered the reason why a child who had been isolated from language was unable to recover the inherent aspects of language, including the syntax Chomsky believed they were born with. They found the answer in neurology. The creative functions, such as listening to music, understanding humor, and determining appropriate conversation topics, are predominantly controlled by the right hemisphere of the brain.
The left hemisphere of the brain encompasses mathematics, logic, and language. Both sides of the brain possess knowledge of word meanings. By puberty, the brain reaches a state of relative stability, as all essential developmental stages have been completed, including language acquisition and sensory development. Brain damage occurring during early critical periods may impede the acquisition of language, but other regions of the brain can compensate if the damage occurs within these crucial periods. Helen Neville, a neuroscientist at the Salk Institute in La Jolla, California, further explains that in individuals who are deaf, language processing shifts from the right hemisphere (which includes facial perception and potentially sign language) to the left hemisphere, which is responsible for language and logic.
Genie’s brain appeared to display bias as well. She excelled in tasks that involved the right hemisphere but struggled with tasks that required the use of her left hemisphere. Curtiss conducted a test on Genie to uncover the underlying reasons by playing different stimuli into each of her ears (where the left ear corresponds to the right hemisphere and the right ear corresponds to the left hemisphere), measuring the response from each hemisphere.
Both ears performed well independently, and when both ears heard the same sounds it was fine. However, when there was competition between the two ears, the left ear (and right hemisphere) performed better. The level of asymmetry observed was unusually significant. It was discovered that Genie’s brain processed language in the same manner as it did with environmental sounds, specifically in the right hemisphere. It is normal for the brain to have a preference for one hemisphere, but Genie had an absolute preference. Curtiss proposed that Genie’s case suggests that typical cerebral organization relies on language development occurring at the appropriate time.
According to Lenneberg, language learning is facilitated by the organization of the brain. It is now widely accepted that stimulation is necessary for brain organization. Lenneberg also argued that language is the only form of stimulation capable of organizing the brain, as it is a logical system specifically designed to harmonize with the human brain and stimulate its growth.
According to Curtiss, in early 1978, Genie is experiencing confusion and trauma due to frequent moves. She has been moved from one foster family to the hospital, then to another foster family, and back to the hospital. Finally, on March 20th, Genie is being transferred back to her biological mother.
Rigler later asserts that he has not been compensated for the therapy he provided to Genie and subsequently claims her inheritance following her father’s death. Shortly thereafter, Irene obtains a copy of Curtiss’ book detailing Genie’s life, her family, and their history. Irene feels that her privacy has been violated, prompting her to file a lawsuit against Curtiss with the assistance of Jean Butler. She accuses them of breaching patient-therapist and patient-physician confidentiality by disclosing excessive information about Genie and Irene’s personal lives and backgrounds in the book.
One of Irene’s lawyers alleges that Butler initiated the idea that Curtiss’ book violated her privacy, perhaps as an act of revenge against the scientists. As the case prolongued, Irene’s lawyers became increasingly suspicious that they were basing their argument on weak grounds. Subsequently, her lawyers stepped down from the case, and Irene proceeded to represent herself before the attorneys.
A settlement was reached wherein Susan Curtiss was appointed to oversee a program for Genie that involved linguistic, neurolinguistic, and neuropsychological evaluation as well as language instruction. The income generated by the scientists involved in the program was to be given as a donation to Genie’s estate. Currently, Genie resides in a residence for individuals with intellectual disabilities and she visits her mother once a month.
Except for Jay Shurley, all the scientists have not seen her. This is the conclusion of the story, which is undeniably a tragic one, but we have gained knowledge from it. If the brain does not receive sufficient language stimulation during the critical period, it can still acquire vocabulary but it becomes unable to grasp syntax. Consequently, the brain cannot develop in a manner necessary to acquire grammar.
